The Central Government and the State Governments issue securities periodically for the purpose of raising loans from the public. There are 2 main types of Government securities:
Dated Securities: have a maturity period of more than 1 year
Treasury Bills: have a maturity period of less than 1 year
Equity shares
Equity shares represent proportionate ownership in a company. Investors who own equity shares in a company are entitled to ownership rights, such as:
Share in the profits of the company (in the form of dividends),
Share in the residual funds after liquidation / winding up of the company,
Selection of directors in the board, etc.
Share in the profits of the company (in the form of dividends),
Share in the residual funds after liquidation / winding up of the company,
Selection of directors in the board, etc.
Preference shares
Preferential shareholders enjoy a preferential right over equity shareholders with regards to ordinary shareholder.
Bonds
A bond is a debt investment with which the investor loans money to an entity (company or government) that borrows the funds for a defined period of time at a specified interest rate.
Debentures
A debenture is the most common form of long-term loan taken by a company. It is usually a loan repayable at a fixed date, although some debentures are irredeemable securities; these are sometimes called perpetual debentures. Most debentures also pay a fixed rate of interest, and this interest must be paid before a dividend is paid to shareholders
What are the different types of financial instruments?
The following are the different types of financial instruments-
Debentures
Bonds
Preference shares
Equity shares
Government securities
Debentures
Bonds
Preference shares
Equity shares
Government securities
Money Market
The money market is a subsection of the fixed income market. We generally think of the term "fixed income" as a synonym of bonds. In reality, a bond is just one type of fixed income security. The difference between the money market and the bond market is that the money market specializes in very short-term debt securities (debt that matures in less than one year). Money market investments are also called cash investments because of their short maturities. Money market securities are essentially IOUs (an abbreviation of the phrase "I owe you") issued by governments, financial institutions and large corporations. These instruments are very liquid and considered extraordinarily safe. Since they are extremely conservative, money market securities offer significantly lower returns than most of the other securities.
Stock Market
A stock market is a market for the trading of publicly held company stock and associated financial instruments (including stock options, convertibles and stock index futures). Many years ago, worldwide, buyers and sellers were individual investors and businessmen. These days markets have generally become "institutionalized"; that is, buyers and sellers are largely institutions whether pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds or banks. This rise of the institutional investor has brought growing professionalism to all aspects of the markets.
Financial Market
The financial markets are markets which facilitate the raising of funds or the investment of assets, depending on viewpoint. They also facilitate handling of various risks. The financial markets can be divided into different subtypes:
Capital markets consists of:
Stock markets, which facilitates equity investment and buying and selling of shares of stock. Bond markets, which provides financing through the issue of debt contracts and the buying and selling of bonds and debentures.
Money markets, which provides short term debt financing and investment.
Derivatives markets, which provides instruments for handling of financial risks.
Futures markets, which provide standardized contracts for trading assets at a forthcoming date.
Insurance markets, which facilitates handling of various risks.
Foreign exchange markets
Capital markets consists of:
Stock markets, which facilitates equity investment and buying and selling of shares of stock. Bond markets, which provides financing through the issue of debt contracts and the buying and selling of bonds and debentures.
Money markets, which provides short term debt financing and investment.
Derivatives markets, which provides instruments for handling of financial risks.
Futures markets, which provide standardized contracts for trading assets at a forthcoming date.
Insurance markets, which facilitates handling of various risks.
Foreign exchange markets
Capital Market
The capital market is the market for long-term loans (debentures & bonds) and equity capital. Companies and the government can raise funds for long-term investments via the capital market. The capital market includes the stock market, bond market and primary market. Thus, organized capital markets are able to guarantee sound investment opportunities.
The capital market can be contrasted with other financial markets such as the money market which deals in short term liquid assets and futures markets which deal in commodities contracts.
The capital market can be contrasted with other financial markets such as the money market which deals in short term liquid assets and futures markets which deal in commodities contracts.
What are Index Futures and Index Option Contracts
Futures contract based on an index i.e. the underlying asset is the index,are known as Index Futures Contracts. For example, futures contract on NIFTY Index and BSE-30 Index. These contracts derive their value from the value of the underlying index. Similarly, the options contracts, which are based on some index, are known as Index options contract. However, unlike Index Futures, the buyer of Index Option Contracts has only the right but not the obligation to buy / sell the underlying index on expiry. Index Option Contracts are generally European Style options i.e. they can be exercised / assigned only on the expiry date. An index, in turn derives its value from the prices of securities that constitute the index and is created to represent the sentiments of the market as a whole or of a particular sector of the economy. Indices that represent the whole market are broad based indices and those that represent a particular sector are sectoral indices.
In the beginning futures and options were permitted only on S&P Nifty and BSE Sensex. Subsequently, sectoral indices were also permitted for derivatives trading subject to fulfilling the eligibility criteria. Derivative contracts may be permitted on an index if 80% of the index constituents are individually eligible for derivatives trading. However, no single ineligible stock in the index shall have a weightage of more than 5% in the index. The index is required to fulfill the eligibility criteria even after derivatives trading on the index has begun. If the index does not fulfill the criteria for 3 consecutive months, then derivative contracts on such index would be discontinued. By its very nature, index cannot be delivered on maturity of the Index futures or Index option contracts therefore, these contracts are essentially cash settled on Expiry.Therefore index options are the European options while stock options are American options.
In the beginning futures and options were permitted only on S&P Nifty and BSE Sensex. Subsequently, sectoral indices were also permitted for derivatives trading subject to fulfilling the eligibility criteria. Derivative contracts may be permitted on an index if 80% of the index constituents are individually eligible for derivatives trading. However, no single ineligible stock in the index shall have a weightage of more than 5% in the index. The index is required to fulfill the eligibility criteria even after derivatives trading on the index has begun. If the index does not fulfill the criteria for 3 consecutive months, then derivative contracts on such index would be discontinued. By its very nature, index cannot be delivered on maturity of the Index futures or Index option contracts therefore, these contracts are essentially cash settled on Expiry.Therefore index options are the European options while stock options are American options.
Option contract
Options Contract is a type of Derivatives Contract which gives the buyer/holder of the contract the right (but not the obligation) to buy/sell the underlying asset at a predetermined price within or at end of a specified period. The buyer / holder of the option purchases the right from the seller/writer for a consideration which is called the premium. The seller/writer of an option is obligated to settle the option as per the terms of the contract when the buyer/holder exercises his right. The underlying asset could include securities, an index of prices of securities etc. Under Securities Contracts (Regulations) Act,1956 options on securities has been defined as "option in securities" means a contract for the purchase or sale of a right to buy or sell, or a right to buy and sell, securities in future, and includes a teji, a mandi, a teji mandi, a galli, a put, a call or a put and call in securities;
An Option to buy is called Call option and option to sell is called Put option. Further, if an option that is exercisable on or before the expiry date is called American option and one that is exercisable only on expiry date, is called European option. The price at which the option is to be exercised is called Strike price or Exercise price.
Therefore, in the case of American options the buyer has the right to exercise the option at anytime on or before the expiry date. This request for exercise is submitted to the Exchange, which randomly assigns the exercise request to the sellers of the options, who are obligated to settle the terms of the contract within a specified time frame. As in the case of futures contracts, option contracts can also be settled by delivery of the underlying asset or cash. However, unlike futures cash settlement in option contract entails paying/receiving the difference between the strike price/exercise price and the price of the underlying asset either at the time of expiry of the contract or at the time of exercise / assignment of the option contract.However so far delivery against option contracts have not been introduced and the option contract, on exercise or expiry, is settled by cash settlement only.
An Option to buy is called Call option and option to sell is called Put option. Further, if an option that is exercisable on or before the expiry date is called American option and one that is exercisable only on expiry date, is called European option. The price at which the option is to be exercised is called Strike price or Exercise price.
Therefore, in the case of American options the buyer has the right to exercise the option at anytime on or before the expiry date. This request for exercise is submitted to the Exchange, which randomly assigns the exercise request to the sellers of the options, who are obligated to settle the terms of the contract within a specified time frame. As in the case of futures contracts, option contracts can also be settled by delivery of the underlying asset or cash. However, unlike futures cash settlement in option contract entails paying/receiving the difference between the strike price/exercise price and the price of the underlying asset either at the time of expiry of the contract or at the time of exercise / assignment of the option contract.However so far delivery against option contracts have not been introduced and the option contract, on exercise or expiry, is settled by cash settlement only.
Futures Contract
Futures Contract means a legally binding agreement to buy or sell the underlying security on a future date. Future contracts are the organized/standardized contracts in terms of quantity, quality (in case of commodities), delivery time and place for settlement on any date in future. The contract expires on a pre-specified date which is called the expiry date of the contract. On expiry, futures can be settled by delivery of the underlying asset or cash. Cash settlement enables the settlement of obligations arising out of the future/option contract in cash.However so far delivery against future contracts have not been introduced and the future contract is settled by cash settlement only.
Derivatives
The term "Derivative" indicates that it has no independent value, i.e. its value is entirely "derived" from the value of the underlying asset. The underlying asset can be securities, commodities, bullion, currency, live stock or anything else. In other words, Derivative means a forward, future, option or any other hybrid contract of pre determined fixed duration, linked for the purpose of contract fulfillment to the value of a specified real or financial asset or to an index of securities. With Securities Laws (Second Amendment) Act,1999, Derivatives has been included in the definition of Securities. The term Derivative has been defined in Securities Contracts (Regulations) Act, as:- A Derivative includes: -
a. a security derived from a debt instrument, share, loan, whether secured or unsecured, risk instrument or contract for differences or any other form of security;
b. a contract which derives its value from the prices, or index of prices, of underlying securities;
a. a security derived from a debt instrument, share, loan, whether secured or unsecured, risk instrument or contract for differences or any other form of security;
b. a contract which derives its value from the prices, or index of prices, of underlying securities;
What are the salient features of a “Commodity Futures Contract”?
A commodity futures contract is a tradable standardized contract, the terms of which are set in advance by the commodity exchange organizing trading in it. The futures contract is for a specified variety of a commodity, known as the “basis” though quite a few other similar varieties, both inferior and superior, are allowed to be deliverable or tender able for delivery against the specified futures contract.
The quality parameters of the “basis” and the permissible tender able varieties; the delivery months and schedules; the places of delivery, the “on” and ”off” allowances for the quality differences and the transport costs; the transport costs; the tradable lots; the modes of price quotes; the procedures for regular periodical (mostly daily) clearings; the payment of prescribed clearing and margin monies; the transaction, clearing and other fees; the arbitration, survey and other dispute redressing methods; the manner of settlement of outstanding transactions after the last trading day, the penalties for non-issuance or non-acceptance of deliveries, etc. are all predetermined by the rules and regulations of the commodity exchange.
Consequently, the parties to the contract are required to negotiate only the quantity to be bought and sold and the price. Everything else is prescribed by the Exchange. Because of the standardized nature of the futures contract, it can be traded with ease at a moment’s notice.
The quality parameters of the “basis” and the permissible tender able varieties; the delivery months and schedules; the places of delivery, the “on” and ”off” allowances for the quality differences and the transport costs; the transport costs; the tradable lots; the modes of price quotes; the procedures for regular periodical (mostly daily) clearings; the payment of prescribed clearing and margin monies; the transaction, clearing and other fees; the arbitration, survey and other dispute redressing methods; the manner of settlement of outstanding transactions after the last trading day, the penalties for non-issuance or non-acceptance of deliveries, etc. are all predetermined by the rules and regulations of the commodity exchange.
Consequently, the parties to the contract are required to negotiate only the quantity to be bought and sold and the price. Everything else is prescribed by the Exchange. Because of the standardized nature of the futures contract, it can be traded with ease at a moment’s notice.
What are the salient features of a “Commodity Futures Contract”?
A commodity futures contract is a tradable standardized contract, the terms of which are set in advance by the commodity exchange organizing trading in it. The futures contract is for a specified variety of a commodity, known as the “basis” though quite a few other similar varieties, both inferior and superior, are allowed to be deliverable or tender able for delivery against the specified futures contract.
The quality parameters of the “basis” and the permissible tender able varieties; the delivery months and schedules; the places of delivery, the “on” and ”off” allowances for the quality differences and the transport costs; the transport costs; the tradable lots; the modes of price quotes; the procedures for regular periodical (mostly daily) clearings; the payment of prescribed clearing and margin monies; the transaction, clearing and other fees; the arbitration, survey and other dispute redressing methods; the manner of settlement of outstanding transactions after the last trading day, the penalties for non-issuance or non-acceptance of deliveries, etc. are all predetermined by the rules and regulations of the commodity exchange.
Consequently, the parties to the contract are required to negotiate only the quantity to be bought and sold and the price. Everything else is prescribed by the Exchange. Because of the standardized nature of the futures contract, it can be traded with ease at a moment’s notice.
The quality parameters of the “basis” and the permissible tender able varieties; the delivery months and schedules; the places of delivery, the “on” and ”off” allowances for the quality differences and the transport costs; the transport costs; the tradable lots; the modes of price quotes; the procedures for regular periodical (mostly daily) clearings; the payment of prescribed clearing and margin monies; the transaction, clearing and other fees; the arbitration, survey and other dispute redressing methods; the manner of settlement of outstanding transactions after the last trading day, the penalties for non-issuance or non-acceptance of deliveries, etc. are all predetermined by the rules and regulations of the commodity exchange.
Consequently, the parties to the contract are required to negotiate only the quantity to be bought and sold and the price. Everything else is prescribed by the Exchange. Because of the standardized nature of the futures contract, it can be traded with ease at a moment’s notice.
What is Commodity?
Commodity includes all kinds of goods. The Forward Contracts Regulation Act, 1952 (FCRA) defines “goods” as “every kind of movable property other than actionable claims, money and securities”. Further trading is organized in such goods or commodities as are permitted by the Central Government. At present, all goods and products of agricultural (including plantation), mineral and fossil origin are allowed for futures trading under the auspices of the commodity exchange recognized under the FCRA. The national commodity exchanges have been recognized by the Central Government for organizing trading in all permissible commodities which include precious (gold & silver) and non-ferrous metals; cereals and pulses; ginned and un-ginned cotton; oilseeds, oils and oilcakes; raw jute and jute goods; sugar and gur; potatoes and onions; coffee and tea; rubber and spices, etc.
Instructions
1
Meet with an annuity representative to review all annuity options. There are fixed income annuities, variable annuities that invest in mutual funds and fixed-index annuities hybrids combining both fixed and variable features. Annuity representatives are found at insurance companies, banks and brokerage firms.
2
Pick an annuity that meets your needs. Fixed annuities are conservative investments. Variable annuities offer a range of conservative to aggressive mutual fund options.
3
Fill out a "new annuity application" with the representative. Make sure your name, address and all identifying information match the information on your qualified tax-deferred account statement. Check the box stating this is a transfer and is for "qualified assets."
4
Complete an "IRA transfer" form. Fill out the requested contact information and account information.
5
Call the customer service number provided on your existing qualified account and request a rollover form if the account is from an employer plan. Rollovers must initiate from the employer's plan, whereas the transfer form is sufficient for an IRA account.
6
Call your annuity representative three to six weeks after all paperwork is completed to confirm that the money has transferred.
Meet with an annuity representative to review all annuity options. There are fixed income annuities, variable annuities that invest in mutual funds and fixed-index annuities hybrids combining both fixed and variable features. Annuity representatives are found at insurance companies, banks and brokerage firms.
2
Pick an annuity that meets your needs. Fixed annuities are conservative investments. Variable annuities offer a range of conservative to aggressive mutual fund options.
3
Fill out a "new annuity application" with the representative. Make sure your name, address and all identifying information match the information on your qualified tax-deferred account statement. Check the box stating this is a transfer and is for "qualified assets."
4
Complete an "IRA transfer" form. Fill out the requested contact information and account information.
5
Call the customer service number provided on your existing qualified account and request a rollover form if the account is from an employer plan. Rollovers must initiate from the employer's plan, whereas the transfer form is sufficient for an IRA account.
6
Call your annuity representative three to six weeks after all paperwork is completed to confirm that the money has transferred.
How to Put Tax Deferred Money Into an Annuity
Tax-deferred money, such as 401k, 403b and Individual Retirement (IRA) accounts, are structured to help investors save money to supplement retirement income. These types of accounts are referred to as qualified plans. Annuities are investments sold by insurance companies that are inherently tax-deferred but may be either qualified or non-qualified. Non-qualified annuities use after-tax money and defer only the earnings. If there is an annuity investment that meets your investment objectives, you can transfer qualified tax-deferred assets into annuities without generating a taxable event.
How Is the Interest on a Tax-Deferred Annuity Taxed?
The tax benefits of a tax-deferred annuity help the interest rate increase plan's value faster. This type of annuity is chosen as an option to fund a person's retirement.
Annuity Categories
Annuities are financial contracts that distribute a specific amount of money over a period of time according to the terms of the agreement. They are categorized as qualified or nonqualified.
Taxes Deferred
Annuities are tax-deferred, which means the funds will grow tax-free until they are withdrawn.
Interest
The interest earned from a tax-deferred annuity accumulates without taxation until a person makes a withdrawal. The interest rate is guaranteed for a fixed annuity, but it can increase if the plan is a variable annuity.
Considerations
Interest rates for annuities are determined by the financial company, while private annuities, which are set up between two parties that are not a company, are subject to IRS rate regulation.
Warning
Withdrawals from tax-deferred annuities are taxed at regular income tax rates. But if an owner under the age of 60 takes money from a qualified annuity that is part of a retirement plan, such as an IRA, an additional 10 percent federal tax penalty is levied against the distribution.
Annuity Categories
Annuities are financial contracts that distribute a specific amount of money over a period of time according to the terms of the agreement. They are categorized as qualified or nonqualified.
Taxes Deferred
Annuities are tax-deferred, which means the funds will grow tax-free until they are withdrawn.
Interest
The interest earned from a tax-deferred annuity accumulates without taxation until a person makes a withdrawal. The interest rate is guaranteed for a fixed annuity, but it can increase if the plan is a variable annuity.
Considerations
Interest rates for annuities are determined by the financial company, while private annuities, which are set up between two parties that are not a company, are subject to IRS rate regulation.
Warning
Withdrawals from tax-deferred annuities are taxed at regular income tax rates. But if an owner under the age of 60 takes money from a qualified annuity that is part of a retirement plan, such as an IRA, an additional 10 percent federal tax penalty is levied against the distribution.
Instructions concered to Calculation of a Deferred Annuity
Present Value
1
Write down the present value equation. Calculating the present value shows you the amount of money you need to invest today in order to save a desired amount of money over a specified number of years at a specified rate of return.
Present Value = Future Amount / (1 + Rate of Return)^term
2
Define the variables. Assume you want to save $100,000 by the end of 10 years. You have found an annuity offering a minimum rate of 3 percent, guaranteed annually.
Present Value = $100,000 / ( 1 + .03)^10
3
Calculate the present value.
Present Value = $100,000 / (1.03)^10 = $100,000 / 1.629 = $61,388.
You need to invest a minimum of $61,388 today to achieve your goal.
Future Value
1
Write down the future value equation. The future value determines what your investment today will be worth down the road. This helps people understand how existing assets will grow.
Future Value = Present Value (1 + rate of return)^term
2
Define the variables. Assume you have $10,000 to invest and want to see how a 5 percent interest rate will grow the asset over 20 years.
Future Value = $10,000 (1 + .05)^20
3
Calculate the future value.
Future Value = $10,000 (1.05)^20 = $10,000(2.6532) = $26,532
The future value of your investment is $26,532, based on the assumptions.
1
Write down the present value equation. Calculating the present value shows you the amount of money you need to invest today in order to save a desired amount of money over a specified number of years at a specified rate of return.
Present Value = Future Amount / (1 + Rate of Return)^term
2
Define the variables. Assume you want to save $100,000 by the end of 10 years. You have found an annuity offering a minimum rate of 3 percent, guaranteed annually.
Present Value = $100,000 / ( 1 + .03)^10
3
Calculate the present value.
Present Value = $100,000 / (1.03)^10 = $100,000 / 1.629 = $61,388.
You need to invest a minimum of $61,388 today to achieve your goal.
Future Value
1
Write down the future value equation. The future value determines what your investment today will be worth down the road. This helps people understand how existing assets will grow.
Future Value = Present Value (1 + rate of return)^term
2
Define the variables. Assume you have $10,000 to invest and want to see how a 5 percent interest rate will grow the asset over 20 years.
Future Value = $10,000 (1 + .05)^20
3
Calculate the future value.
Future Value = $10,000 (1.05)^20 = $10,000(2.6532) = $26,532
The future value of your investment is $26,532, based on the assumptions.
How to Calculate a Deferred Annuity
Deferred annuities are investment vehicles sold by insurance companies providing investors with tax-deferred growth on the earnings. A deferred annuity may offer fixed rates of return or variable rates contingent on mutual fund growth within the annuity. You can calculate the value of a deferred annuity in two ways: present value or future value. These values help you determine what you need to invest to meet your investment goals.
Instructions concerened Deffered Tax
1
Understand the difference between a deferred tax asset and a deferred tax liability. A deferred tax asset arises because taxes have been paid (or losses have been carried forward). Deferred tax liabilities are tax payments that have made it to the income statement, but have not flowed through to the cash flow statement.That is, no cash has changed accounts.
2
Review the causes of deferred taxes. Deferred taxes usually originate on the income statement. Accelerated depreciation (which speeds up expenses, and lowers tax payments) is one common cause. In general, any asset with a higher book value (as carried in the books) than tax basis will have a deferred tax liability. If the carrying value is less than the tax basis, it will result in a deferred asset.
3
Work through an example. The accounting income for Company XYZ is $110 and the tax expense is 20% of the accounting income. The tax expense is $22 ($110*.20). Income tax payable is the amount the IRS demands a corporation pay (the company has not been paid yet).
4
Calculate the deferred tax. The difference between the $110 gross income and the $88 in taxable income is $22. This amount is a deferred tax liability.
5
Change to a deferred tax asset. Had the amount been paid (carry forward) prior to taxes being due to the IRS, the amount would be considered a tax asset.
Understand the difference between a deferred tax asset and a deferred tax liability. A deferred tax asset arises because taxes have been paid (or losses have been carried forward). Deferred tax liabilities are tax payments that have made it to the income statement, but have not flowed through to the cash flow statement.That is, no cash has changed accounts.
2
Review the causes of deferred taxes. Deferred taxes usually originate on the income statement. Accelerated depreciation (which speeds up expenses, and lowers tax payments) is one common cause. In general, any asset with a higher book value (as carried in the books) than tax basis will have a deferred tax liability. If the carrying value is less than the tax basis, it will result in a deferred asset.
3
Work through an example. The accounting income for Company XYZ is $110 and the tax expense is 20% of the accounting income. The tax expense is $22 ($110*.20). Income tax payable is the amount the IRS demands a corporation pay (the company has not been paid yet).
4
Calculate the deferred tax. The difference between the $110 gross income and the $88 in taxable income is $22. This amount is a deferred tax liability.
5
Change to a deferred tax asset. Had the amount been paid (carry forward) prior to taxes being due to the IRS, the amount would be considered a tax asset.
How to Calculate Deferred Taxes
Due to accrual accounting, there are different methods for recording net income before taxes resulting in a deferred tax. Deferred taxes can greatly affect a company's net income and book value. Specifically, deferred taxes represent the difference between taxes assessed from net income and pretax income (income before taxes). Over time, deferred taxes tend to balance out.
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